Publications

The aim of this work is to produce submillimetric aqueous-core caspules with a thin alginate hydrogel membrane. These biocompatible capsules can be used for biotechnological appli- cations. They are produced by the break-up of a compound jet with an aqueous core and an alginate shell. We showed that the co-flow inside the injector can exhibit an elastic instability in presence of cations. Growth media contain such cations. Alginate is a polyelectrolyte and cations change its viscoelastic properties. We showed that this instability results in a beating of the compound jet. The instability induces a displacement of the core fluid position which leads to an asymmetric velocity relaxation that creates a torque and finally bends the jet. We produced curved jets with a beveled capillary to evidence this effect. In this case, the fluid viscosity imposes the degree of asymmetry. The jet break-up is controlled by a piezoelectric actuator. We measured a decrease of the wave speed on the jet surface (due to law Weber numbers) and amplified speed dispersion. This dispersion is created by the formation of a beads-on-a-string structure and low distances variations between drops. The addition of sur- factants can create a dynamic surface tension at the jet interface that enhances this dispersion. Finally, we managed to produce submillimetric and monodisperse capsules with a size we can tune, a thin membrane and an encapsulation rate above 99%.

This work, in collaboration with Michelin for the fabrication of composite materials, deals with the colloidal stability of the latex of natural rubber (NR). The NR latex is a polydisperse colloidal dispersion of a bio-polymer in an aqueous serum. The particles are stabilized by a complex layer of phospholipids and proteins. This dispersion can be coagulated by a physical way (under shearing), or by a physical-chemicalway (addition of divalent cations or hydrophobic particles). In this thesis, we studied the coagulation of the NR latex by divalent cations with physical-chemical tools (stability diagrams with different cations, aggregation kinetic of particles, rheological measuremments). Then, the surface of NR particles has been characterized by electrophoresis, firstly in the presence surfactants and secondly depending on the particles size. From the results of the first part we suggest that the coagulation with divalent cations is due to a screening effect because of the increase of ionic strength and that divalent cations can bridge the particles together. This allows keeping them in contact. Adhesion between polymer chains near the surface ensures the irrversible cohesion. In a second time, we saw that the adsorption of surfactants changes the particles surface and the coagulation of NR latex with cations. A small difference of surface charge is observed between the biggest and the smallest NR particles. Finally, a similar behavior has been obtained with a synthetic latex in presence of divalent cations. Our results could be used to develop an industrial process based on this coagulation phenomenon.

The actin cytoskeleton has the unique capability of producing pushing forces at the leading edge of motile cells without the implication of molecular motors. This phenomenon has been ex- tensively studied theoretically, and molecular models, including the widely known Brownian ratchet, have been proposed. However, supporting experimental work is lacking, due in part to hardly accessible molecular length scales. We designed an experiment to directly probe the mechanism of force generation in a setup where a population of actin filaments grows against a load applied by magnetic microparticles. The filaments, arranged in stiff bundles by fascin, are constrained to point toward the applied load. In this protrusion-like geometry, we are able to directly measure the velocity of filament elongation and its dependence on force. Using numerical simulations, we provide evidence that our experimental data are consistent with a Brownian ratchet-based model. We further demonstrate the existence of a force regime far below stalling where the mechanical power transduced by the ratcheting filaments to the load is maximal. The actin machinery in migrating cells may tune the number of filaments at the leading edge to work in this force regime.

Capsules having a thin alginate hydrogel membrane and an aqueous core can be obtained by a process that involves a co-extrusion step in air followed by a sol–gel transition of the shell after immersion into a gelling bath. The possibility to encapsulate cells that further grow in these biocompatible compartments, and thus offer a versatile tool for cell culture, led us to investigate the physicochemical properties of the capsules. A cut-off pore size of the semi-permeable membrane is extrapolated from the release of polymers out of the capsule. When polymers cannot diffuse through the membrane, the osmotic pressure mismatch between the core and the surrounding medium triggers an inflation of the capsule. The swelling may reach a steady state that allows the determination of the elastic features of the hydrogel shell. On the other hand, the capsule membrane may rupture and then contract. From this stress-relaxation process, a critical deformation of the hydrogel shell above which plasticity occurs can be deduced. Finally, thanks to the physical nature of the hydrogel, the core content can be released by dissolving the membrane with the help of small electrolytes. The shell life is shown to vary inversely with the ionic strength of the solution.

Microfluidics has proven to be an efficient tool for making fine and calibrated emul- sion droplets. The parallelization of drop makers is required for producing large amounts. Here, we investigate the generation of emulsion drops along a series of shallow microchannels emerging in a deep one, in other words the step-emulsification process. The dynamics of a single drop maker is first characterized as a function of interfacial tension and viscosities of both phases. The characteristic time scale of drop formation, namely, the necking time that finally sets drop size, is shown to be principally governed by the outer phase viscosity to interfacial tension ratio with a minor correction linked to the viscosity ratio. The step emulsification process experi- ences a transition of fragmentation regime where both the necking time and drop size suddenly raise. This transition, that corresponds to a critical period of drop formation and thus defines a maximum production rate of small droplets, is observed to be ruled by the viscosity ratio of the two phases. When drops are produced along an array of microchannels with a cross flow of the continuous phase, a configuration comparable to a one-dimensional membrane having rectangular pores, a drop boundary layer develops along the drop generators. In the small drop regime, the local dynamics of drop formation is shown to be independent on the emulsion cross flow. Moreover, we note that the development of the drop boundary layer is even beneficial to ho- mogenize drop size along the production line. On the other hand, in the large drop regime, drop collision can trigger fragmentation and thus lead to size polydispersity.

The capacity of microfluidic technology to fabricate monodisperse emulsion droplets is well established. Parallelization of  droplet production is a prerequisite for using such an approach for making high quality materials for either fundamental or industrial applications where product quantity matters.  Here, we investigate the emulsification efficiency  of parallelized drop generators based on a flow focusing geometry when incorporating the role of partial wetting in order to make emulsion droplets with a diameter  below 10 microns. Confinement intrinsically encountered  in microsystems intensifies the role played by interfaces between liquids and solids.  We thus take advantage of partial wetting to enhance the maximum confinement accessible due to liquid flow focusing. We  compare the performances brought by partial wetting to more established routes such as  step emulsification. We show that the step configuration and the partial wetting regime are both well suited for being parallelized and thus open the way to the production of fine and calibrated emulsions for further applications. Finally, this new route of emulsification that exploits partial wetting between the fluids and the channel walls opens possibilities to the formation of substantially smaller droplets, as required in many fields of application.

Colloids are used in many applications such as contrast agents in MRI or magnetic immuno-agglutination in diagnosis. To improve their performance, the interaction between particles and biological media – in particular proteins – has been studied for more than 150 years; nevertheless this phenomenon is still not well described.
The first part of this thesis is dedicated to an application of colloids: detection of target proteins. Based on orientation of anisotropic magnetic aggregates, a new method has been developed, which generates a signal of aggregation, directly proportional to the amount of protein in the sample: lowering the detection limit. This technique has been validated on a real system: C-reactive protein.
The second part is dedicated to protein adsorption on colloids. The first objective was the development of a protocol to obtain reliable measurements; adsorption could then be characterized in a model system: bovine serum albumin and silica. Results obtained were thus able to dismiss certain paradoxes and to propose a new model.
Ultimately the studies reveal how proteins, by adsorbing between two particles, aggregate colloids. In sufficient quantities, they can also protect against aggregation, enabling a new method of particle stabilization.

Bacteria play a major role in our environment. Their ubiquity comes from their amazing ability to adapt to environmental conditions. Understand their adaptability can help to cure in fections or to use bacteria for biotechnology. The diversity of phenotypes within a population - different observable characters - and the diversification mechanisms contribute to the bacterial adaptability. In order to study the adaptation of bacteria, we followed the temporal evolution of diversity within populations of Escherichia coli through environmental transition. We get a picture of the diversity with a phenotyping tool in millifluidic allowing parallel acquisition of one thousand the bacteria growth curves. Through three examples, we show the potential of this approach to read the phenotypes within a population and we explore the roles of diversification and Darwinian selection on the dynamics of adaptation observed. The phase variation of the ag43 gene and the exposure to a non lethal concentration of antibiotic illustrate a first phase of adaptation governed by the competition between the phenotypes with the highest apparition probabilities. Finally we study the adaptation of a population in a depleted environment for thirty days. After fifteen days we observe a convergence towards a single phenotype. This determinism is common to all three examples. However, the end of the experiment is unpredictable: the observation is different for each repetition. It corresponds to a second phase of adaptation which is dominated by the rare appearance of beneficial mutations.