The removal of ultrathin amorphous polymer films in contact with nonsolvent/solvent binary mixtures is addressed by means of neutron reflectometry and atomic force microscopy. The high resolution of neutron scattering makes it possible to resolve the distribution profiles of heavy water and benzyl alcohol inside Laropal (R) A81, often employed as a protective varnish layer for Culture Heritage in restoration of easel paintings. The swelling kinetics and distribution profiles were recorded as a function of time and increasing benzyl alcohol concentration in water. The varnish film swells by penetration of the good solvent. At higher concentrations water-filled cavities appear inside the varnish and grow with time. Contrary to homogeneous dissolution dewetting is observed at late stages of exposure to the liquid which leads to the Breakup of the film. The high resolution measurements are compared to bulk behaviour characterized by the ternary phase diagram and the Flory-Huggins interaction parameters are calculated and used to predict the swelling and solvent partition in the films. Distinct differences of the thin film to bulk behaviour are found. The expectations made previously for the behaviour of solvent/non-solvent mixtures on the removal of thin layers in the restoration of easel paintings should be revised in view of surface interactions.

Droplet-based microfluidics, using water-in-oil emulsion droplets as microreactors, is becoming a widespread method for performing assays and especially in the cell biology field. Making a simple and highly portable system for creating emulsion droplets would help to continue the popularization of such a technique. Also, the ability to emulsify all the samples would strengthen this compartimenlization technique to handle samples with limited volume. Here, we propose a strategy of droplet formation that combines a classical flow-focusing microfluidic chip, which could be commercially available, with a standard laboratory adjustable micropipette. The micropipette is used as a negative pressure generator for controlling liquid flows. In that way, emulsification does neither require any electrical power supply nor a cumbersome device and functions with small liquid volumes. Droplet formation can be easily and safely performed in places with limited space, opening a wide range of applications especially in biological laboratory environments with higher level of safety regulations, i.e., BSL-3/4. Fortunately, the present methodology that involves small fluid volumes, and thus possible time dependent flow conditions, allows to minimize dead volume while keeping drops’ size homogeneous. A physical characterization of droplet production and a model that describes the emulsion features, in terms of drop size and size distribution, are proposed for rationalizing the performances of the micropipette-powered emulsification process.

Microfluidics has proven to be an efficient tool for making fine and calibrated emul- sion droplets. The parallelization of drop makers is required for producing large amounts. Here, we investigate the generation of emulsion drops along a series of shallow microchannels emerging in a deep one, in other words the step-emulsification process. The dynamics of a single drop maker is first characterized as a function of interfacial tension and viscosities of both phases. The characteristic time scale of drop formation, namely, the necking time that finally sets drop size, is shown to be principally governed by the outer phase viscosity to interfacial tension ratio with a minor correction linked to the viscosity ratio. The step emulsification process experi- ences a transition of fragmentation regime where both the necking time and drop size suddenly raise. This transition, that corresponds to a critical period of drop formation and thus defines a maximum production rate of small droplets, is observed to be ruled by the viscosity ratio of the two phases. When drops are produced along an array of microchannels with a cross flow of the continuous phase, a configuration comparable to a one-dimensional membrane having rectangular pores, a drop boundary layer develops along the drop generators. In the small drop regime, the local dynamics of drop formation is shown to be independent on the emulsion cross flow. Moreover, we note that the development of the drop boundary layer is even beneficial to ho- mogenize drop size along the production line. On the other hand, in the large drop regime, drop collision can trigger fragmentation and thus lead to size polydispersity.

The capacity of microfluidic technology to fabricate monodisperse emulsion droplets is well established. Parallelization of  droplet production is a prerequisite for using such an approach for making high quality materials for either fundamental or industrial applications where product quantity matters.  Here, we investigate the emulsification efficiency  of parallelized drop generators based on a flow focusing geometry when incorporating the role of partial wetting in order to make emulsion droplets with a diameter  below 10 microns. Confinement intrinsically encountered  in microsystems intensifies the role played by interfaces between liquids and solids.  We thus take advantage of partial wetting to enhance the maximum confinement accessible due to liquid flow focusing. We  compare the performances brought by partial wetting to more established routes such as  step emulsification. We show that the step configuration and the partial wetting regime are both well suited for being parallelized and thus open the way to the production of fine and calibrated emulsions for further applications. Finally, this new route of emulsification that exploits partial wetting between the fluids and the channel walls opens possibilities to the formation of substantially smaller droplets, as required in many fields of application.

Emulsions have been studied for a long time because of the richness of their related fundamental physicochemical phenomena and owing to their wide industrial applications. The development of microfluidics offers new opportunities to investigate emulsion features and behaviours. This review relates the use of microfluidic tools for probing the interfacial properties of emulsion droplets and the two main mechanisms of destabilisation, namely the coalescence of adjacent drops and the molecular transfer between neighbouring drops.

Water drops dispersed in chloroform and stabilized with phospholipids become adhesive if a bad solvent for lipids, such as silicone oil, is added to the continuous phase. In this way, two sticking drops are separated by a bilayer of phospholipids. By using microfluidic technologies, we probe the stability and properties of such membranes likewise encountered in foams or vesicles. We first establish the stability diagram of adhering drop pairs as a function of the continuous phase composition. We found two regimes of destabilization of the bilayer. The first one concerns a competition between the dynamics of adhesion and the transport of surfactants toward the interfaces that leads to a dilute surfactant coverage. The second one corresponds to a dense surface coverage where the lifetime distribution of the bilayer exponentially decreases as a signature of a nucleation process. In the stable regime, we observe the propagation of adhesion among a concentrated collection of drops. This is another remarkable illustration of the suction consequence when two close deformable objects are pulled apart. Moreover, the present experimental strategy offers a novel way to study the phase diagrams of bilayers from a single phospholipid to a mixture of phospholipids. Indeed, we detect phase transitions at a liquid−liquid interface that are ruled by the amount of bad solvent. Finally, we probe the transport of water molecules through the bilayer and show that its permeability is linked to the adhesion energy that reflects its fluidity.

Water-in-oil emulsion drops are formed and stabilized with phospholipids which can adhere and form a bilayer. Using microfluidics, adhesive drop pairs are then trapped and submitted to an ac electric field. We observe three distinct states as a function of the adhesion energy and the electric field intensity. The pair can be either stable, though slightly deformed, or unzip and separate, or coalesce. The frontiers between the different states directly reflect vesicle detachment forces and electroporation theories. The experimental approach that we propose for probing liquid interface wetting between monolayers allows us to finely tuned the tension in the bilayer and gives access to bilayer unzipping.

The phase inversion that undergoes an emulsion while being sheared is a sudden phenomenon that is still puzzling. In this Letter, we report an experimental investigation on propagative coalescence by using a microfluidic device where a calibrated two-dimensional emulsion is created and destabilized. The velocity of propagation and the probability of the coalescence are reported as a function of the size and the spatial distribution of the drops, respectively. We then discuss the efficiency of this novel scenario of phase inversion and suggest that inversion can be favored by the existence of a drop size distribution.

Grâce à la microfluidique, la stabilité et les propriétés de deux types d'émulsions ont pu être sondées. Il s'agit d' émulsions non adhésives et d'émulsions adhésives. Les points importants des différentes thématiques abordées sont résumés dans les paragraphes suivants. – La déstabilisation hydrodynamique d'une émulsion : La fusion de gouttes proches est favorisée par leur séparation. En réalité les gouttes sont localement rapprochées car une dépression se crée lors de leur éloignement. Cela les oblige à former localement des bourgeons qui les rendent plus proches. – La déstabilisation d'une émulsion par un champ électrique : L'état de coalescence temporaire a été mis en évidence. Un diagramme de coalescence de paires a été établi. Pour des trains de gouttes, le diagramme de stabilité coïncide avec celui de paires. La seule différence est observée pour des temps d'excitation plus courts que le temps de relaxation des charges. Dans ce cas, la "coalescence partielle" est remplacée par une simple coalescence. – La caractérisation d'émulsions inverses adhésives : La technique pour former une émulsion inverse très adhésive, c'est de la former très peu adhésive et d'évaporer le bon solvant. Les bicouches artificielles formées avec ces émulsions miment presque toutes les propriétés des membranes biologique. Suivant la quantité de mauvais solvant, elles peuvent se présenter sous forme gaz, fluide ou gel. – La perméabilité des bicouches artificielles : Avec un choc osmotique, la perméabilité à l'eau de ces bicouches a été mis en évidence. Elles sont faiblement perméables aux ions. Avec un champ électrique, leur perméabilité aux ions est possible grâce à la formation de pores à travers elles. Un diagramme d'électroporation s'en est suivi. Pour les deux moteurs de perméabilité, le constat principal est la variation notable de la perméabilité instantanée lors d'une transition de phase dans les bicouches. Ces résultats sont très intéressants et montrent à quel point les émulsions en générale regorge encore de secrets. Pour les émulsions adhésives, les comportements que nous avons observés sur les trains de gouttes sont déjà très surprenants. Nous pouvons nous attendre à des comportements encore plus surprenants dans le cas d'émulsions macroscopiques. En outre, ces effets sont généralement "contre-intuitifs" : la déstabilisation d'une émulsion dense est facilitée par sa décompression ! la séparation des phases huileuses et aqueuses d'une émulsion de pétrole est optimale pour une application d'un champ électrique pas très élevé (un champ électrique élevé entraîne la "coalescence partielle" des gouttes)... Tous ces comportements "contre intuitifs" peuvent être très utiles pour des applications futures dans le domaine des matériaux. En ce qui concerne les émulsions adhésives, les résultats établis ici sont très prometteurs. Elles permettent de mimer les membranes biologiques. Grâce à la perméabilité des membranes artificielles formées, nous pouvons imaginer des gouttes, très concentrées en ions, qui seraient des pompes à solvant : elle permettraient, par exemple, de changer des concentrations de microréacteurs... En ce qui concerne l'électroporation, les expériences peuvent encore être peaufinées. La prochaine étape sera certainement de contrôler directement le potentiel des gouttes, par des pointes par exemple. Cela éviterait, en effet, leur séparation. Dans ce cas, il est clair que le mécanisme d'électroporation pourrait avoir une réelle valeur ajoutée car les réservoirs seront figés et des échanges pourraient se faire. On pourrait espérer ainsi réaliser des expériences d'insertion de molécules dans des gouttes, par électroporation, comme cela existe actuellement pour des vésicules.

By using microfluidic chips, we investigate the stability regarding coalescence of droplet pairs under an electric field as a function of drop separation and ac field intensity. Three different regimes are found: stable, coalescence, and partial merging. From this, we identify the two breaking scenarios of a one dimensional train of droplets: in one case the coalescence front propagates; in the other case, in which pairs belong to the partial merging regime, the coalescence front can become heterogeneous. From these findings, we can propose a destruction mechanism for a macroscopic emulsion, which includes the packing condition for which total and immediate destruction is effective.

The destabilization process of an emulsion under flow is investigated in a microfluidic device. The experimental approach enables us to generate a periodic train of droplet pairs, and thus to isolate and analyze the basic step of the destabilization, namely, the coalescence of two droplets which collide. We demonstrate a counterintuitive phenomenon: coalescence occurs during the separation phase and not during the impact. Separation induces the formation of two facing nipples in the contact area that hastens the connection of the interfaces prior to fusion. Moreover, droplet pairs initially stabilized by surfactants can be destabilized by forcing the separation. Finally, we note that the fusion mechanism is responsible for a cascade of coalescence events in a compact system of droplets where the separation is driven by surface tension.